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Siege of Carthage, 149 to 146 BC: How Rome Destroyed Carthage in the Third Punic War

Third Punic War · 149 to 146 BC · Roman Republic vs Carthage · ~13 min read · Updated October 2026

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Etching of a city falling to soldiers: Roman legionaries with standards and shields enter from the left past classical temples wreathed in smoke, while on a heap of rubble and bodies at right a woman in flowing robes, a child over her shoulder and a dagger in her hand, points back at the Romans in defiance

La Moglie di Asdrubale: the wife of Hasdrubal, the last commander of Carthage, turns on the Romans amid the ruins of the city before throwing herself and her children into the flames, as Appian tells it. Etching by Bartolomeo Pinelli for his Istoria Romana, Rome, 1819 (detail). Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam, via Wikimedia Commons, CC0.

At a glance

Roman RepublicConsuls Manius Manilius and Lucius Marcius Censorinus (149 BC); Lucius Calpurnius Piso and Lucius Hostilius Mancinus (148 BC); Publius Cornelius Scipio Aemilianus (147 to 146 BC), with Gaius Laelius; Gulussa, son of Masinissa
vs
CarthageHasdrubal (the boetharch); Hasdrubal, grandson of Masinissa (in the city until 148 BC); Himilco Phameas (cavalry, until he deserted); Diogenes at Nepheris
Date
War declared in 149 BC; Scipio Aemilianus in command from 147 BC; the final assault in the spring of 146 BC lasted six days and nights. No day is recorded
Location
Carthage, on its peninsula in the Gulf of Tunis, today a suburb of Tunis, Tunisia
War
Third Punic War
Outcome
Roman victory: Carthage stormed and razed, its survivors sold into slavery, its land made the Roman province of Africa
By the numbers
SideStrengthLosses
Rome80,000 infantry and about 4,000 cavalry, 50 quinqueremes and 100 smaller warships in 149 BC (Appian; the Cambridge Ancient History accepts the total as possible, counting volunteers)Not recorded
CarthageA city population that Ben Kiernan, following B. H. Warmington, puts at 200,000 to 400,000; a field army under Hasdrubal of 20,000 to 30,000 (Appian gives both figures; the Cambridge Ancient History has 20,000)At the surrender 50,000 men and women (Appian), 55,000 (Orosius) or 36,000 (Florus), all sold into slavery; Kiernan estimates at least 150,000 Carthaginian dead over the war

All figures are ancient claims or modern estimates. Appian, whose account goes back to the eyewitness Polybius, gives the fullest numbers; Polybius' own narrative of the siege is almost entirely lost.

Quick answer

What happened at the siege of Carthage?

From 149 to 146 BC Rome besieged Carthage after the city refused an order to abandon its site and move inland. For two years the attacks failed. Scipio Aemilianus blockaded the city by land and sea, stormed it in the spring of 146 BC, sold the survivors into slavery and razed Carthage to the ground.1

In the spring of 146 BC Roman soldiers fought their way up the streets of Carthage for six days and nights, house by house, toward the citadel on the hill of Byrsa. When it was over, a city that had stood for some seven hundred years was burning, and the Roman commander, Scipio Aemilianus, stood weeping as he watched it, with the historian Polybius at his side.2

This is the story of the last war between Rome and Carthage from both sides: why Rome chose to destroy a city that had already surrendered, how the Carthaginians rearmed and held out for three years, how the city fell, and what archaeology has found of it since. It belongs to our guide to the Punic Wars; see also Rome vs Carthage and the greatest battles of Carthage.

Why did the Third Punic War begin?

The peace that ended the Second Punic War in 201 BC left Carthage its city and its African lands but forbade it to make war, even in Africa, without Rome's consent. It also allowed Masinissa, the Numidian king who had fought for Rome at Zama, to claim any land that he or his ancestors had once held. Over the next fifty years he pressed claims to one Carthaginian district after another. Appian says the Roman arbitrators were told to favor him; Gilbert and Colette Picard judge instead that for some thirty years the Senate's rulings went increasingly Carthage's way.3

Dark locator map with a gold star in a glowing circle marking the approximate site of Siege of Carthage, the coasts, rivers and lakes of the region, and a small world map inset with the area boxed
Siege of Carthage: the star marks the approximate site, and the inset shows the area on a world map. Drawn for this article from Natural Earth data, with no modern borders. Location map: © Echoes of Battle (data: Natural Earth, public domain)

Carthage kept to the treaty. By 150 BC it had kept the peace with Rome for half a century and, as Stéphane Gsell noted, had paid in full the war indemnity imposed in 201 BC. The city was also rich again: Plutarch says that when Cato the Elder went to Africa as an envoy he found Carthage teeming with fighting men and overflowing with wealth.4

Did Cato really say “Carthage must be destroyed”?

Cato came home convinced that Carthage was a danger. Plutarch tells how he dropped a Libyan fig in the Senate and reminded the senators that the country where it grew was only three days' sail from Rome, and how he ended every speech, on any subject, with the words “In my opinion, Carthage must be destroyed.” Publius Scipio Nasica answered each time that Carthage should be spared, as a check that would keep the Roman people in order.5

The saying comes down to us in Greek in Plutarch and in Latin indirect speech in Florus, who writes that Cato, with implacable hatred, kept declaring that Carthage must be destroyed. Neither gives it in the three-word Latin form, Carthago delenda est, by which it is quoted today. The historian Ben Kiernan calls it possibly the first recorded incitement to genocide.6

The pretext came from Africa. In about 151 BC the popular party in Carthage drove out the leaders who favored Masinissa. When the king sent his sons Micipsa and Gulussa to demand their return, they were shut out and attacked on the road, and Masinissa laid siege to a Carthaginian town. Carthage sent an army of 25,000 foot under a general named Hasdrubal against him, a war that broke the treaty of 201 BC.7

The young Scipio Aemilianus, in Africa to buy elephants for a Roman army in Spain, watched the battle from a hill. Masinissa then surrounded the Carthaginian camp until hunger and disease forced it to surrender; the Carthaginians promised to pay 5,000 talents over fifty years, and as the survivors marched out Gulussa's cavalry fell on them. Only a small remnant got home.8

What did Rome demand from Carthage?

At Rome, Polybius says, the decision had long been made, and the Senate was only looking for a pretext that would satisfy foreign opinion. Early in 149 BC Utica went over to Rome, the Senate declared war, and the consuls Manius Manilius and Lucius Marcius Censorinus crossed to Africa with an army that Appian puts at 80,000 men, a figure Scullard accepts as possible.9

The Carthaginians tried to avert the war by surrendering unconditionally. The Senate promised them their freedom, laws, territory and property, on condition that within thirty days they sent 300 hostages, sons of members of their council and senate, to Lilybaeum in Sicily, and obeyed the consuls' orders. They did. The consuls then demanded every weapon in the city, and the Carthaginians handed over 200,000 weapons of all kinds and 2,000 catapults.10

Only then did the consuls give the last order, delivered by Censorinus in Appian's account: the Carthaginians were to leave their city, which would be razed, and settle wherever they liked at least 80 stades, about ten Roman miles, from the sea. In the speech Appian gives him, he argued that the sea had led them into empire and ruin and that a farming life inland would be safer. For a people who lived by the sea it was a sentence of death as a city.11

How did Carthage rearm after giving up its weapons?

The news set off a riot. The crowd turned on the envoys and on the leaders who had advised giving up the hostages and the weapons, and attacked Italians who happened to be in the city. Then Carthage chose to fight: the senate declared war, freed the slaves and named two generals, Hasdrubal, the commander it had condemned to death after the war with Masinissa and who now held the countryside with an army, 30,000 men by Appian's count, and inside the walls another Hasdrubal, a grandson of Masinissa. A request for a thirty-day truce to send envoys to Rome was refused.12

The whole city became an arsenal. Temples and open spaces were turned into workshops where men and women worked day and night in shifts, and Appian reports a daily output of 100 shields, 300 swords, 1,000 catapult bolts and 500 javelins. The women cut off their hair for the catapults' torsion ropes, for want of other fiber, and offered their gold jewelry.13

Why did the first Roman attacks fail?

The consuls advanced slowly, believing that a disarmed city would soon give in. Carthage stood on a peninsula joined to the mainland by an isthmus, closed by a triple wall which, by Appian's figures, was some 45 feet high and 30 feet deep. Manilius attacked across the isthmus, Censorinus from the lake on the south, and both assaults failed.14

Censorinus broke a stretch of wall with two great battering rams, but the defenders filled most of the breach overnight and wrecked the rams in a sally, and when the Romans pushed into the breach they were thrown back; Scipio Aemilianus, then a military tribune, kept his own men in hand and covered the retreat. Disease spread in Censorinus' camp by the marshes, and fire ships sent down the wind nearly destroyed the Roman fleet.15

Outside the city Hasdrubal's army held a fortified camp at Nepheris, in the hills southeast of the city, and his cavalry commander Himilco Phameas harried the Roman foragers. Manilius twice marched against Nepheris and twice came close to disaster, saved, by the accounts of Theodor Mommsen and of Gilbert and Colette Picard, by Scipio's skill. Scipio later persuaded Phameas to change sides with part of his horsemen.16

The year 148 BC went no better. Masinissa died at about ninety, and Scipio divided his kingdom among his three sons; Gulussa brought Numidian cavalry to the Roman camp. The new consul, Lucius Calpurnius Piso, attacked the coastal towns instead of Carthage: he sacked Neapolis after its surrender and failed before Hippo, while in Carthage the general Hasdrubal had his namesake, Masinissa's grandson, struck down in the council.17

How did Scipio Aemilianus take command?

Scipio Aemilianus, born in 185 or 184 BC, had been adopted into the family of Scipio Africanus, the victor of Zama. In 148 BC the people elected him consul for 147 BC although he was too young under the law, and the law was set aside to let him serve. Even old Cato had praised him with a line of Homer: he alone has wits, the rest are flitting shadows.18

He arrived just in time. The commander of the fleet, Lucius Hostilius Mancinus, had forced his way into the suburb of Megara with a small force and was trapped against the cliffs; Scipio's ships appeared and took the men off. Scipio then restored discipline in the camp and made a night attack on Megara with 4,000 men before withdrawing from its gardens and ditches.19

In reply, Hasdrubal had Roman prisoners mutilated and killed on the walls in sight of their comrades, so that no Carthaginian could hope for terms. He had Carthaginians suspected of weakness put to death as well. Polybius, who saw him, calls him an empty-headed braggart. Scipio meanwhile sealed off the isthmus with a vast fortified camp, so that no food could come in by land.20

How did Scipio close the harbor of Carthage?

Carthage still fed itself by sea, when fast ships ran the blockade in a strong wind. Its two harbors, described by Appian after Polybius, shared one entrance from the sea that could be closed with chains: a merchant harbor and, inside it, a round naval harbor with an island for the admiral's house and shipsheds for 220 warships. Excavations by British and American teams in the 1970s, under the overall direction of Tunisia's National Institute of Archaeology and Art in the UNESCO Save Carthage campaign, confirmed his description.21

Scipio built a stone mole across the approach to close the entrance. The Carthaginians answered by secretly digging a new channel from the naval harbor to the open sea and building a fleet from old timber: about fifty triremes and quinqueremes, by Gsell's account, built in two months according to Strabo, whom he cites.22

Black and white survey map of a coastal plain: a lagoon at left, a long sandbar running down to a fort at the bottom left, two small artificial basins near the shore, one round with an island in the middle, low hills and villages inland, a cape and a village on a cliff at right, and an ornate title cartouche reading Plan du terrain et des ruines de Carthage
The site of Carthage as surveyed in 1831 by the Danish naval officer Christian Tuxen Falbe (detail): the Lake of Tunis at left, the sandbar of La Goulette running down to the bottom, the two silted Punic harbors near the shore, one of them round with the former admiral's island in its middle, and the cliffs of Sidi Bou Said and Cape Carthage at right. Plan du terrain et des ruines de Carthage (Paris, 1833), Bibliothèque nationale de France, public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

The new fleet took the Romans by surprise, but it only made a show of strength and went back in. When it came out to fight on the third day, the battle was undecided; on the way back the Carthaginian ships fouled one another at the harbor mouth, and many took refuge against a wide quay outside the walls. Scipio attacked the quay. Carthaginians waded across the shallows at night and burned his siege engines, but he set them up again, took the quay and built on it a wall as high as the city's.23

That winter Scipio and Laelius stormed the camp at Nepheris. Appian claims some 70,000 killed there, including noncombatants, a figure Kiernan thinks probably exaggerated. After it, as the Cambridge Ancient History puts it, the Libyan tribes one and all submitted to Rome, and Carthage was alone.24

How did the final assault on Carthage unfold?

In the spring of 146 BC, with the city starving, Hasdrubal set fire to the outer harbor, expecting the attack there. Gaius Laelius climbed the wall by the inner harbor, the Romans took the market square next to it, and the soldiers stripped the gold from the temple of Apollo there.25

From the forum three narrow streets climbed to the citadel of Byrsa between houses six stories high. The defenders fought from the roofs, and the Romans crossed from roof to roof on planks while others fought in the streets below. Scipio then had the streets set on fire, and the houses were pulled down with the people still in them. The fighting went on for six days and six nights.26

Gsell believed these details came from Polybius, who watched the fighting beside Scipio, and that Appian copied them from his lost account. Picard notes that Polybius, the most learned man of his age, recorded both Scipio's feelings and the fury of the Roman soldiers in the streets.27

Oil painting of half-naked Roman soldiers winding a huge wooden siege engine with ropes and levers, the words Delenda est Carthago carved on one of its beams, archers crouching in the foreground, an officer in a crested helmet and red cloak at right, and the walls and temples of a city on a hill in the background
The Catapult, Edward Poynter's imagined Roman siege engine before the walls of Carthage, with Cato's words carved into its timber: oil on canvas, 1868. Laing Art Gallery, Newcastle upon Tyne, public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

What happened to Hasdrubal and his wife?

On the seventh day men came down from Byrsa carrying the olive branches of suppliants and asked for the lives of those who would come out. Scipio granted it, except to Roman deserters, and 50,000 men and women came out through a narrow gate by Appian's count; Orosius gives 25,000 women and 30,000 men, and Florus 36,000.28

About 900 deserters, who could expect no mercy, held the temple of the healing god Eshmun, whom the Greeks called Asclepius, with Hasdrubal, his wife and their two sons. Hasdrubal slipped away and threw himself at Scipio's knees. The deserters set the temple on fire and died in it. His wife, as Polybius tells it, reproached her husband for his cowardice; in the later accounts of Livy's epitome and Zonaras she then threw their children into the flames and leapt in after them.29

Seventeenth-century oil painting: a woman in a golden dress, holding a baby with a small boy clinging to her skirt, points accusingly at a dejected man in armor sitting on a step, while a bearded commander in an orange cloak raises his hand from a high seat surrounded by soldiers with spears
Hasdrubal's wife denounces her husband before the Roman commander, as Polybius and Appian tell it: oil painting by Pietro della Vecchia, about the 1650s, whose title names Scipio Africanus, though the victor of 146 BC was his adoptive grandson Scipio Aemilianus. National Gallery of Ireland, Dublin, public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Polybius says that Scipio, watching the city burn, shed tears for his enemies and repeated the lines of Homer, “A day will come when sacred Troy shall perish, and Priam and his people shall be slain.” When Polybius asked what he meant, Scipio named his own country, for which he feared when he thought of the fate of all things human.30

How many people died in the siege of Carthage?

No ancient writer gives a full count. Florus and Orosius say the city burned for seventeen days, and Orosius that its wall was ground to dust. The survivors who came out of Byrsa, 36,000 to 55,000 depending on the source, were sold as slaves. Kiernan, following the historian B. H. Warmington, puts the population at 200,000 to 400,000 and estimates that at least 150,000 Carthaginians died over the three years.31

Did the Romans sow salt on Carthage?

No ancient source says so. Appian describes the burning, the plunder and the ban on living there, and later authors from Cicero to Augustine mention the destruction, but none speaks of salt. The earliest version the historian R. T. Ridley could find was a single sentence in the Cambridge Ancient History of 1930: buildings and walls razed, the plow passed over the site, and salt sown in the furrows. From there, he showed, it passed into later books, including those of Scullard and of the French Carthage specialist Gilbert Picard.32

What happened to Carthage after 146 BC?

Scipio gave his soldiers several days of plunder, set aside the gold, silver and temple offerings, and invited the Sicilian cities to reclaim the treasures Carthage had taken from them centuries before. Ten senators came from Rome as commissioners. They decreed that whatever was left of the city should be razed and that no one should live there, with dire threats against anyone who rebuilt Byrsa or Megara; Cicero later wrote that Scipio had consecrated the site, without being sure why, as Ridley notes.33

The Greek world was divided. Polybius records that some praised Rome for removing a perpetual threat to its empire, while others said Rome had abandoned the principles by which it had won its power and turned to deceit. Scullard judged that Rome's conduct may have been correct in law but that the calculating way it was carried out cast a shadow over Rome's good name.34

The towns that had stood by Carthage were destroyed, while Utica and the others that had joined Rome were rewarded with land. The rest of Carthage's territory became the Roman province of Africa, governed from Utica. Scipio celebrated a triumph at Rome and took the name Africanus, like his adoptive grandfather.35

The same year Rome destroyed another great city: the consul Lucius Mummius sacked Corinth in Greece. As the Picards point out, every chronology sets the two events under the same year, 146 BC.36

Where is ancient Carthage today?

Carthage lies on the coast of the Gulf of Tunis, in the suburbs of modern Tunis. A century after 146 BC Julius Caesar and Augustus founded a Roman colony on the site, and Roman Carthage grew into one of the great cities of the empire. UNESCO listed the archaeological site as a World Heritage Site in 1979.37

Some of the Punic city survives beneath the Roman one. On the south slope of Byrsa, where the Romans later leveled the hilltop for their colony, rubble buried a quarter of narrow streets and houses of the last generations of Punic Carthage, excavated from the 1970s by the French mission under Serge Lancel, part of the UNESCO campaign.38

Frequently asked questions

When was the siege of Carthage?

The siege of Carthage lasted from 149 to 146 BC, during the Third Punic War. Rome declared war in 149 BC, the first assaults failed, and Scipio Aemilianus took command in 147 BC. His troops broke into the city in the spring of 146 BC and fought for six days and nights before the citadel surrendered.

Why did Rome destroy Carthage?

Carthage had recovered its wealth after 201 BC, and Roman leaders such as Cato the Elder saw it as a danger. When Carthage went to war with Rome's ally Masinissa in 150 BC, breaking the peace treaty, Rome declared war and ordered the Carthaginians to abandon their city. They refused, and Rome destroyed it.

Who won the siege of Carthage?

Rome won. Scipio Aemilianus stormed Carthage in the spring of 146 BC. The last defenders surrendered on the citadel of Byrsa, between 36,000 and 55,000 survivors were sold into slavery depending on the source, the city was razed, and its lands became the Roman province of Africa, governed from Utica.

Did the Romans salt the earth at Carthage?

There is no evidence that they did. No ancient author mentions salt. The earliest version the historian R. T. Ridley could find is a sentence in the Cambridge Ancient History of 1930. The ancient sources describe the burning, the razing of the walls and a decree forbidding anyone to live on the site.

Who was Hasdrubal the Boetharch?

Hasdrubal was the Carthaginian general who led the war against Masinissa in 150 BC and then the defense of Carthage. Condemned to death after his defeat, he was recalled when Rome demanded the city's evacuation. He surrendered to Scipio in 146 BC, while his wife and sons died in the burning temple.

Why did Scipio Aemilianus weep at Carthage?

Polybius, who stood beside him, says Scipio wept as Carthage burned and quoted Homer's lines on the fall of Troy. Asked what he meant, he said he feared that one day the same fate would come to Rome, since every empire and every city must in the end fall.

Where was ancient Carthage?

Ancient Carthage stood on a peninsula on the Gulf of Tunis, in modern Tunisia, where its ruins now lie within the suburbs of Tunis. Rome founded a new Roman city on the site a century after 146 BC, and UNESCO listed the archaeological site as a World Heritage Site in 1979.

Notes

A number in the text points to a note; each note names the works that paragraph draws on, listed in full under Sources.

  1. Enciclopedia Treccani, “Guerre puniche”; Ben Kiernan, “The First Genocide”. ↩
  2. Polybius, The Histories; Theodor Mommsen, The History of Rome, book IV; Orosius, Historiae adversus paganos, book IV. ↩
  3. Appian, The Punic Wars; Gilbert Charles Picard and Colette Picard, The Life and Death of Carthage; B. L. Hallward and M. P. Charlesworth, The Cambridge Ancient History, vol. VIII, Rome and the Mediterranean, 218 to 133 B.C.. ↩
  4. Plutarch, Life of Cato the Elder; Stéphane Gsell, Histoire ancienne de l'Afrique du Nord, vol. III, Histoire militaire de Carthage. ↩
  5. Plutarch, Life of Cato the Elder; Livy, Periochae. ↩
  6. Florus, Epitoma de Tito Livio, book I; Plutarch, Life of Cato the Elder; Ben Kiernan, “The First Genocide”. ↩
  7. H. H. Scullard, A History of the Roman World from 753 to 146 B.C.; Stéphane Gsell, Histoire ancienne de l'Afrique du Nord, vol. III, Histoire militaire de Carthage. ↩
  8. Encyclopaedia Britannica, “Carthage”; B. L. Hallward and M. P. Charlesworth, The Cambridge Ancient History, vol. VIII, Rome and the Mediterranean, 218 to 133 B.C.. ↩
  9. Polybius, The Histories; H. H. Scullard, A History of the Roman World from 753 to 146 B.C.. ↩
  10. Polybius, The Histories; Ben Kiernan, “The First Genocide”. ↩
  11. Appian, The Punic Wars; Ben Kiernan, “The First Genocide”. ↩
  12. Appian, The Punic Wars; Theodor Mommsen, The History of Rome, book IV. ↩
  13. Stéphane Gsell, Histoire ancienne de l'Afrique du Nord, vol. III, Histoire militaire de Carthage; Theodor Mommsen, The History of Rome, book IV. ↩
  14. Appian, The Punic Wars; H. H. Scullard, A History of the Roman World from 753 to 146 B.C.. ↩
  15. Theodor Mommsen, The History of Rome, book IV; B. L. Hallward and M. P. Charlesworth, The Cambridge Ancient History, vol. VIII, Rome and the Mediterranean, 218 to 133 B.C.. ↩
  16. Theodor Mommsen, The History of Rome, book IV; Gilbert Charles Picard and Colette Picard, The Life and Death of Carthage. ↩
  17. Cassius Dio, Dio's Roman History, vol. II; Stéphane Gsell, Histoire ancienne de l'Afrique du Nord, vol. III, Histoire militaire de Carthage; Livy, Periochae. ↩
  18. Encyclopaedia Britannica, “Carthage”; Livy, Periochae; Plutarch, Life of Cato the Elder. ↩
  19. B. L. Hallward and M. P. Charlesworth, The Cambridge Ancient History, vol. VIII, Rome and the Mediterranean, 218 to 133 B.C.; Cassius Dio, Dio's Roman History, vol. II. ↩
  20. Gilbert Charles Picard and Colette Picard, The Life and Death of Carthage; Polybius, The Histories. ↩
  21. Henry Hurst and Lawrence E. Stager, “A metropolitan landscape”; Appian, The Punic Wars. ↩
  22. Stéphane Gsell, Histoire ancienne de l'Afrique du Nord, vol. III, Histoire militaire de Carthage; Livy, Periochae. ↩
  23. Theodor Mommsen, The History of Rome, book IV; Stéphane Gsell, Histoire ancienne de l'Afrique du Nord, vol. III, Histoire militaire de Carthage. ↩
  24. Ben Kiernan, “The First Genocide”; B. L. Hallward and M. P. Charlesworth, The Cambridge Ancient History, vol. VIII, Rome and the Mediterranean, 218 to 133 B.C.. ↩
  25. Gilbert Charles Picard and Colette Picard, The Life and Death of Carthage; Theodor Mommsen, The History of Rome, book IV. ↩
  26. Appian, The Punic Wars; Cassius Dio, Dio's Roman History, vol. II. ↩
  27. Stéphane Gsell, Histoire ancienne de l'Afrique du Nord, vol. III, Histoire militaire de Carthage; Gilbert Charles Picard and Colette Picard, The Life and Death of Carthage. ↩
  28. Orosius, Historiae adversus paganos, book IV; Florus, Epitoma de Tito Livio, book I; Ben Kiernan, “The First Genocide”. ↩
  29. Polybius, The Histories; Cassius Dio, Dio's Roman History, vol. II; H. H. Scullard, A History of the Roman World from 753 to 146 B.C.; Livy, Periochae. ↩
  30. Polybius, The Histories; H. H. Scullard, A History of the Roman World from 753 to 146 B.C.. ↩
  31. Orosius, Historiae adversus paganos, book IV; Florus, Epitoma de Tito Livio, book I; Ben Kiernan, “The First Genocide”. ↩
  32. R. T. Ridley, “To Be Taken with a Pinch of Salt”; B. L. Hallward and M. P. Charlesworth, The Cambridge Ancient History, vol. VIII, Rome and the Mediterranean, 218 to 133 B.C.. ↩
  33. Appian, The Punic Wars; R. T. Ridley, “To Be Taken with a Pinch of Salt”; Livy, Periochae. ↩
  34. Polybius, The Histories; H. H. Scullard, A History of the Roman World from 753 to 146 B.C.. ↩
  35. H. H. Scullard, A History of the Roman World from 753 to 146 B.C.; Enciclopedia Treccani, “Guerre puniche”. ↩
  36. Livy, Periochae; Gilbert Charles Picard and Colette Picard, The Life and Death of Carthage. ↩
  37. UNESCO World Heritage Centre, “Archaeological Site of Carthage”; Encyclopaedia Britannica, “Carthage”; Enciclopedia Treccani, “Guerre puniche”. ↩
  38. Gilbert Charles Picard and Colette Picard, The Life and Death of Carthage; Serge Lancel, “La renaissance de la Carthage punique. Réflexions sur quelques enseignements de la campagne internationale patronnée par l'Unesco”. ↩

Sources

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